Research Design
Question 1. Definition research design
Answer:
- Research design is a blueprint for conducting the study that maximizes control over factors that could interfere with the validity of findings.
- The research design guides the researcher in planning and implementing the study in a way that is most likely to achieve the intended goal.
- The control provided by the design increases the probability that the study results are accurate reflections of reality.
- Skill in selecting and implementing research design is important to improving the quality of the study and thus the usefulness of findings.
Research Design Definition:
- Research design is a blueprint for conducting the study that maximizes control over factors that could interfere with the validity of the finding.
Read And Learn More: BSc Nursing 3rd Year Nursing Research And Statistics Previous year Question And Answers
Question 2. List the type of research design. Explain nonexperimental research design in detail.
Answer:
Quantitative Research Design
- In Quantitative Research Design, a researcher examines the various variables while including numbers as well as statistics in a project to analyze its findings.
- The use of graphics, figures, and pie charts is the main form of data collection measurement and meta-analysis (it is information about the data by the data).
Qualitative Research Design
- This type of research is quite contrary to quantitative research design.
- It is explanatory in nature and always seeks answers to “What’s” and “How’s”. It mainly focuses on why a specific theory exists and what would be the respondent’s answer to it.
- This allows a researcher to draw a conclusion with proper findings.
- Case studies are mainly used in Qualitative Research Design in order to understand various social complexities.
Nonexperimental Research Design:
- Nonexperimental research design is one of the broad categories of research designs in which the researcher observes the phenomena as they occur naturally and no external variables are introduced.
- It is a research design in which neither the variables are deliberately manipulated nor is the setting controlled.
- In nonexperimental research, researchers collect data without making changes or introducing treatments.
- Data obtained are analyzed and the results may lead to the formation of a hypothesis that can then be tested experimentally.
- Within a quantitative framework, the observations are represented by numbers that can be statistically analyzed.
- Areas of research interest that have not been examined in depth may be best understood by conducting a descriptive study.
- Data in nonexperimental research are generally collected through the use of questionnaires, interviews, observations, literature reviews, and critical incident techniques.
Need of Nonexperimental Design:
- Nonexperimental research design is frequently used by nurse researchers.
Some of the study situations where only nonexperimental designs can be used to conduct a study are as follows:
- The studies in which the independent variables cannot be manipulated.
- The studies in which it is unethical to manipulate the independent variable, i.e., manipulation may cause physical or psychological harm to subjects.
The studies or research situations where it is not practically possible to conduct experiments.
- Descriptive-type studies that do not require any experimental approaches. most suitable to improve the understanding of the nonexperimental research designs.
- Descriptive design Univariant descriptive design
- Exploratory descriptive design
- Comparative descriptive design
- Correlational/Ex-post facto design
- Prospective design
Retrospective design Developmental research design
- Cross-sectional design Longitudinal design Epidemiological designs.
Case-control studies:
- Cohort studies
- Survey research design
Question 3. Factors Affecting Research Design
Answer:
Factors Affecting Research Design:
- When a researcher has formulated a research problem, he/she has to focus on developing a good design for solving the problem.
- A good design is one that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data.
- It also yields maximum information, gives a minimum experimental error, and provides different aspects of a single problem.
- A research design depends on the purpose and nature of the research problem.
- Thus, one single design cannot be used to solve all types of research problems, i.e., a particular design is suitable for a particular problem.
A research design usually consists of the following factors:
- Availability of scientific information
- Availability of sufficient data
- Time availability
- Availability of the money
- Manpower availability
- The magnitude of the management problem
- Degree of Top management’s support
- Ability, knowledge, skill, technical understanding and technical background of the Researcher
- Controllable variables
- Un-controllable variables
- Internal variables
- External variables.
Question 4. Explain the Experimental research design
Answer:
Experimental Research Designs:
- Experimentation is the most scientifically sophisticated research method.
- It is defined as ‘observation under controlled conditions’ Experimental research differs from nonexperimental design in one important aspect.
- The researcher using an experimental design is an active agent rather than a passive observer.)
- Experimental research designs are concerned with the examination of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable, where the independent variable is manipulated through treatment or intervention(s), and the effect of these interventions is observed on the dependent variable.
- All the experimental researches have a common characteristic, that is, manipulation of independent variables, but a true experiment also consists of the principles of randomization and control.
- The application of control is difficult when studies are conducted in natural settings on human subjects.
- Therefore, in nursing, experimental research design is not feasible to use, and quasi-experimental, pre-experimental, or nonexperimental studies are more frequently conducted.
- According to Riley, Experimental research design is a powerful design for testing hypotheses of causal relationships among variables.
- Ideally in the experimental design, the investigator throws in a sharp relief of explanatory variables in which he is interested, controlling and manipulating the independent variable and observing its effect on the dependent variable, and minimizing the effect of extraneous variables, which might confound his results.
- Experimental research design is further classified into true experimental designs, quasi-experimental designs, and preexample research designs.
Question 5. Elements of Experimental Designs
Answer:
True Experiment Research Design:
- The true experimental design is one in which the researcher has a great deal of control over the research situation only with the use of true experimental design can causality interfere with any degree of confidence with these types of design, the researcher can have some confidence that the independent variables were the cause of the change in the dependent variable.
Criteria for true experimental research design:
1. Manipulation:
- The term manipulation means that the independent or experimental variable is controlled by the researcher.
- The researcher has control over the type of experimental treatment that is administered and who will receive the intervention.
2. Control:
- The second criterion for the true experimental design is the use of a comparison or control group.
- A control group usually indicates a group in an experimental study that doesn’t receive the intervention /treatment.
3. Randomization:
- The third criterion for true experimental studies is the random assignment of subjects to groups.
- Random assignment ensures that each subject has an equal chance of being selected into any of the groups in the experimental study.
Question 6. Give the characteristics of true research design.
Answer:
Characteristics Of True Experimental Design:
- True experimental research designs are those where researchers have complete control over the extraneous variables and can predict confidently that the observed effect on the dependable variable is only due to the manipulation of the independent variable.
A true experimental research design must essentially consist of the following three characteristics:
- Manipulation,
- Control, and
- Randomization.
Manipulation:
- Manipulation refers to conscious control of the independent variable by the researcher through treatment or intervention(s) to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
- It is a conscious act by the researcher, where he or she varies the independent variable and observes the effect that manipulation has on the dependent variable of interest.
- For example, a researcher is conducting a study on the efficacy of chlorhexidine mouthwash in the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) among patients admitted to ICUs.
- In this example, chlorhexidine mouthwash is the independent variable, which is manipulated by the researcher and is used as an intervention for the experimental group, while the control group is kept deprived of it to observe its effect on the incidence of VAP.
Control:
- Control is another essential element of true experimental design.
- Control refers to the use of a control group and controlling the effects of extraneous variables on the dependent variable in which the researcher is interested.
- The subjects in the control and experimental groups are similar in number and characteristics, but the subjects in the control group receive no experimental treatment or intervention at all.
- The experimental group receives the planned treatment or intervention, and a comparison is made with the control group to observe the effect of this treatment or intervention.
- However, generally in health care and nursing research, it is not ethically feasible to keep a control group deprived of interventions; however, existing conventional methods of interventions may be compared with experimental interventions.
- The control of the effects of extraneous variables on the dependent variables can be ensured by using several conventional measures, but none of them is very convenient to use.
Some of these measures can, however, control extraneous variables, which include:
- Matching
- Counterbalancing
- Homogeneity by statistical test
Randomization:
- Randomization means that every subject has an equal chance of being assigned to an experimental or control group.
- This is also known as random assignment of subjects, which involves the placement of study subjects on a random basis.
- Through random assignment of the subject under experimental or control group, the chances of systemic bias are eliminated.
- Randomization is used in true experimental research designs to minimize the threat to the internal validity of the study and to eliminate the effect of extraneous variables on dependent variables.
- Through randomization, on average the characteristics of the subjects in the experimental and control groups are similar; thus influence of extraneous variables on the dependent variable is eliminated by dispersing the variability of the subject characteristics equally in both groups.
Question 7. Discuss the Strengths and Limitations ( Advantages and disadvantages) of Experimental research design.
Answer:
Strength Advantages:
- Experimental research designs are considered the most powerful designs to establish the causal relationship between independent and dependent variables.
- Where the purpose of research is an explanation, causal relationships may be established among the variables by experimentation, especially in studies involving physical objects, where the variables are more easily controlled than in human studies.
- In these studies, the controlled environment in which the study is conducted can yield a greater degree of purity in observation.
- Conditions not found in a natural setting can be created in an experimental setting, where the independent variable is manipulated by the investigator.
- In the experimental approach, we can often create conditions in a short period of time that may take years to occur naturally.
- For example, in genetic studies, we can breed strains in a very short time, which would take a long time in nature to occur.
- When the experiment is conducted in a laboratory, experimental unit, or other specialized research setting, it is removed from the pressure and problems of real-life situations and the researcher can pursue his or her studies in a more leisurely, careful, and concentrated way.
Strength Disadvantages:
- Most of the time, the results of experimental research designs cannot be replicated in studies conducted on human beings due to ethical problems.
- For certain research problems, because of the danger to the physical and psychological health of the human subjects, it is not possible to conduct experiments on human beings.
- Many of the human variables neither have valid measurable criteria nor instruments to measure them.
- For example, patient welfare or level of wellness cannot be measured on any scale or by any instrument.
- In these situations, if a refined experimental design is used, there may be a mismatch between the research design and the variable-measuring instruments.
- In experimental studies conducted in natural settings like hospitals or communities, it is not possible to impose control over extraneous variables.
- Experiments are often impractical when the effect of an independent variable may require a lengthy period of time before it can emerge as a response to the criterion measures.
- This situation exists for many of the variables in nursing.
- One of the main drawbacks to conducting experiments on the effects of nursing care on acutely ill, hospitalized patients is that the patients are discharged from hospitals in such short periods of time that there is little opportunity to study the effects as they occur.
- Only by a difficult and costly procedure, these discharged patients can be followed in their homes to observe the experimental results. However, it is not always possible because of several constraints.
Question 8. Steps in Experimental Design
Answer:
The major Steps in Experimental Design are as follows,
- Delineate the population or universe to be studied (i.e., the set of subjects or objects that share a common observable characteristic).
- Select a sample from the population by random sampling.
- By random assignment, subdivide the sample into two sub-samples.
- Specify one sub-sample, the experimental group, and another the control group.
- Before introducing the independent variable, observe and record all important characteristics of the two groups.
- Introduce the independent variable into the experimental group but withhold it from the control group.
- After introducing the independent variable, observe the dependent variable in both the experimental and control groups.
- Compare the changes that occur in the experimental group with those that may have occurred in the experimental group with those that may have occurred in the control group.
- Record the difference
- Compare these values with statistically computed values that judge the significance of the difference, and indicate whether or not the observed differences could have occurred by chance.
Question 9. Types of Experimental Design
Answer:
The investigator planning an experiment has many experimental design options to choose from.
Experimental designs fall into three major categories which are:
- True or classical experimental design.
- Quasi-experimental design.
- Pre-experimental design.
The most commonly used in nursing studies are discussed as nomenclature used and definitions developed by Campbell and Stanley (1963) as follows.
True or classical experimental design: There are three major designs in the true experimental design, viz.
- Pre-test and post-test control group design
- Solomon Four-group design
- After/Post-test-only experimental design.
Question 10. Characteristics Of Research Design
Answer:
Characteristics Of Research Design:
- Design research investigates the process of designing in all its many fields. It is thus related to Design methods in general or for particular disciplines.
- A primary interpretation of design research is that it is concerned with undertaking research into the design process.
- Secondary interpretations would refer to undertaking research within the process of design.
Characteristics of research design:
1. Objectivity: The findings obtained by the research should be objective. It is possible by allowing more than one person to agree between the final scores/ conclusion of the research.
2. Reliability: If similar research is carried out time and again in a similar setting it must give similar results. So the researcher must frame the research questions to make it reliable and provide similar outcomes.
3. Validity: Any measuring device can be said to be valid if it measures what it is expected to measure and nothing else. To make a research valid the questionnaire framed before research must be framed accordingly.
4. Generalization: The information collected from a given sample must be utilized for providing a general application to the large group from which the sample is drawn.
Question 11. Types of the Quantitative Research Design.
Answer:
Question 12. Steps of the quantitative research process.
Answer:
- Quantitative research is a formal, objective, and systemic process for generating information about the world. Quantitative research is conducted to describe new situations, events, or concepts.
- The research process starts with the identification and formulation of the research problem and ends with the dissemination of research findings.
- Formulation of the research problem
- Determining study objectives
- Review of literature
- Developing conceptual framework
- Formulating hypothesis/assumptions
- Selecting research approach /design
- Specifying the population
- Developing tool (s) for data collection
- Establishing ethical consideration
- Conducting pilot study/ tryout of tool
- Sample selection
- Data collection
- Preparing data for analysis
- Analysis and interpretation of data
- Disseminating the research findings
1. Formulation of research problem
- The foremost step of a research process is to discover an interesting and Research-worthy problem.
- It is such an important step that the whole process can get wasted if the research problem is not clearly understood.
- Therefore any good research needs a good research problem.
The research problem must ensure features of originality, Solvability, and feasibility of research problem as well as the need to take into account its following dimensions.
- Substantive dimension: Is the research problem clinically or theoretically important?
- Methodological dimension: What is the best possible way to study his problem?
- Practice dimension: Are adequate resources available to conduct the study?
- Ethical dimension: Would this problem respect the rights of the study subject?
2. Determining study objectives:
- There must be a clear direction to every research prom and objectives certainly serve this purpose.
- Therefore, researchers must have a list of objectives for the study, which provides guidelines for the researcher as to what exactly must be done during the course of a particular research study.
- There may be general and specific objectives for a research project.
- This step of the research process also includes writing operational definitions of variables under study.
- These objectives and operational definitions not only help delimit the research problem but also provide a defined direction to the research process where researchers have clarity about what to study under a particular statement problem.
3. Review of literature:
- A literature review is a summary of previous knowledge generated by the topic of study.
- It is believed by researchers that research cannot be conducted in a vacuum, bereft of the previous knowledge available, but that it requires a foundation of existing knowledge to plan and conduct good research.
- This knowledge base can only be acquired through a literature review from several sources, such as books, journals, research reports unpublished theses, newspapers, magazines, and other current popular electronic information sources.
- A review of the literature helps the researchers to understand what is already known about a topic and what needs to be further investigated.
- An effective literature review needs certain basic skills in researchers, such as critical thinking, brainstorming reading, comprehending, analysis, synthesizing, and summarizing
- Literature review plays an important role in the development of a research project and, moreover, researchers develop greater insight into the research problem and gain information on what has been alread investigated regarding a particular topic under study.
4. Developing conceptual framework:
- The basic aim of research in most disciplines is to develop, refine, or test theories.
- The nursing profession is considered one of the oldest arts. but one among the youngest sciences, where there is a great need to develop new theories or refine/test existing theories to expand the body of professional knowledge.
- Most of the nursing researchers plan to develop a conceptual framework based on the existing nursing or other non-nursing theories. However, researchers may have their own concepts to develop new nursing-based conceptual frameworks for research studies.
- These conceptual frameworks not only provide meaning to the research problem but also help in developing hypotheses or assumptions for the research studies.
5. Formulating hypothesis/assumptions:
- The hypothesis is an assumed statement suggesting an answer to a question, which may or may not be true.
- In simple words, it translates the statement of problem prediction of what is clearly understandable and easy to comprehend is expected to be the outcome of the study, which is either accepted or rejected based on the empirical data generated at the end of the research process.
- For example, consider this research statement, ‘A correlational study on alcohol intake and incidence of liver disease among people of an urban community at Ludhiana’ Here, the hypothesis will be ‘alcoholics have higher incidence of liver disease”.
- Assumptions are statements that are to be tested to be considered true before they have been scientifically tested.
- In other words, assumptions are the general beliefs of the people at large that are held to be true but have not necessarily been proven.
- For example, satisfaction is largely influenced by the preconceived expectations of the customers.
- This is a general belief of the people, but a researcher may use it as an assumption in a customer satisfaction study. Generally, in nonexperimental research, investigators use assumptions or research questions to have defined directions for the research study.
6. Selecting research approach/design:
A research design is a systematic plan to obtain answers to research questions. In a broader sense, the research design is the blueprint of a research study, which enables the researcher to know whom, what, when, where, and how the study will be conducted.
- Who: Specifies the subject(s) under study, eg. patients, families, groups, etc
- What: Specifies the variables that are to be focused upon and measured.
- When: Specifies the time of the study, duration, and frequency of the observations.
- Where: Specifies the setting of the study; that is where the researcher will be conducting the study.
- How: Specifies how the data will be collected.
- For example, through manipulation of the variables in experimental study under random assignment or simple questioning, interview, or observation of a phenomenon without manipulation and control over variables.
- Basically, there are three approaches/designs for quantitative research: experimental, quasi-experimental, and nonexperimental. However, these designs can be further subclassified into several subtypes of each design.
- Experimental: In experimental research, there is a random assignment of subjects, and availability of a control group to compare with the experimental group, and manipulation of the independent variable to observe the effect on the dependent variable in an experimental group
- Quasiexperimental: Quasiexperimental studies involve the manipulation of independent variables to observe the effect on dependent variables,
- but usually, they do not exert complete control over extraneous variables in manipulation and randomization.
- Research studies on humans, in either field or clinical settings, make it impossible to strictly imply the random assignment of subjects or control of manipulation and extraneous variables.
- Therefore, healthcare professionals mainly conduct quasi-experimental research.
- Nonexperimental: In this design, research variables are studied without manipulating them in a natural setting for the purpose of description, exploration, explanation, or identification of correlation between two or more variables.
7. Specifying the population:
- In quantitative research studies, it is essential to learn about the characteristics the subjects possess and clearly define the group of subjects or objects under study.
- The research population is an aggregate of all the subjects or objects with specific characteristics.
- For example, in a study on ’ the prevalence of hospital-acquired infection among patients admitted to intensive care units, the population is patients admitted to intensive care units, where all the patients are living in similar situations, Le. they are all admitted to intensive care units.
- Population specification helps the researcher to plan and develop an effective methodology and tools for the e development of empirical evidence
8. Developing tool(s) for data collection:
- This is the most important and crucial step of the t is essential to devise methods and tools to measure the research vari research process It is able as objectively and accurately as possible.
- The plan and design of the tools for data collection depends on several factors, such as the type of research design, variables, subjects, researcher’s expertise, available resources, and time for study.
- The researcher could use existing standardized research tools or develop new tools, which must be used after establishing their validity and reliability.
- In quantitative research, usually, structured or semistructured tools are usually used for data collection, which requires a lot of constructive effort, such as reviewing relevant content, brainstorming, expert suggestions, and so on.
9. Establishing ethical considerations:
In nursing science, most of the research is conducted on humans, where it becomes more important to establish ethical considerations.
During research studies, a researcher can address the ethical issues and may establish ethical considerations by taking the following measures:
- Taking informed consent from participants
- Avoiding errors in data collection.
- Obtaining permission from the competent authority to conduct the study.
- Doing justice to participants in analyzing data.
- Maintaining confidentiality of the information and anonymity of subjects.
10. Conducting pilot study/tryout of tool:
- A pilot study is a kind of small-scale rehearsal on the subjects, but these subjects are not a part of the actual study.
- A pilot study is conducted to ensure the feasibility of the study and revise the methodology and tool(s) of the study in case of any shortcomings found.
11. Sample selection:
- It is not practically possible to conduct a study on the entire population. Therefore, researchers must select a representative part of the population.
- A sample can be selected by using either probability or nonprobability sampling technique, where the choice of sampling technique depends on several factors, like the nature of the study; availability of time, money, resources, and researchers‘ knowledge about the population, etc.
- However, researchers always strive to select a representative sample that adequately reflects the population’s traits.
12. Data collection:
- It is the most time-consuming step of the research process, which involves direct or indirect interaction with respondents to gather information pertaining to the topic under study.
- It must be carefully planned and implemented to collect relevant information by using preplanned methods, techniques, and tools of data collection.
- Data collection requires adequate planning, patience, communication, interpersonal relationships, and recording skills.
- Data could be collected through questioning, interviewing, or observation methods.
13. Preparing data for analysis:
- In quantitative studies, careful checking of every tool for its completeness and coding is the main activity during this step of the research process.
- must be ensured that one code specifies only one piece of information, and it should be maintained carefully to avoid any errors.
- Coding can be carried out manually on a paper sheet or on a computer grading sheet (eg. MS Excel sheet) or directly in statistical software.
14. Analysis and interpretation of data:
- In quantitative research studies, numerical data must be organized in an orderly and sequential manner, and processing is required because research questions cannot be answered in numerical form.
- In quantitative research, data may be analyzed by using descriptive or inferential statistics.
- Furthermore, data may be analyzed either by manual calculations or by using statistical software programs, like Statistical Program for Social Sciences (SPSS). Data is presented through tables, graphs, and charts to facilitate the interpretation of data.
15. Disseminating the research findings:
- Research may fail in the achievement of its objectives, if findings are not disseminated to its users.
- Research findings may be communicated through the writing of a research thesis, or article, or presenting an oral research report at scientific professional conferences.
- Research findings must be communicated in a standardized format according to international, national, or institutional guidelines
Question 13. Define Experimental Research Designs and nonexperimental Research Design
Answer:
- Experimentation is the most scientifically sophisticated research method) It is defined as ’observation under controlled conditions’ Experimental research differs from nonexperimental design in one important aspect.
- The researcher using an experimental design is an active agent rather than a passive observer.)
- Experimental research designs are concerned with the examination of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable, where the independent variable is manipulated through treatment or intervention(s), and the effect of these interventions is observed on the dependent variable.
- All the experimental researches have a common characteristic, that is, manipulation of independent variables, but a true experiment also consists of the principles of randomization and control.
Nonexperimental Research Design
- Nonexperimental research design is one of the broad categories of research designs, in which the researcher observes the phenomena as they occur naturally, and no external variables are introduced.
- It is a research design in which variables are not deliberately manipulated, nor is the setting controlled.
Question 14. Historical research design
Answer:
Introduction:
- The systematic collection and criteria evaluation of data relating to past occurrences of particular phenomena also relies primarily on quantitative data.
- Historical research is undertaken to answer questions concerning causes, effects, or trends relating to past events that may shed light on present behavior or practices.
Characteristics of Historical Research Design
- It is important not to confuse Historical research with a review of literature about Historical events.
- Historical research involves the careful study and analysis of data about past events.
- Historical research is a critical investigation of events, Their development, and experience of the past evidence.
- The purpose is to gain a clearer understanding of the impact of the past on present and future events related to the life process.
- It involves a detailed analysis of what has been written.
- Is used to describe, explain, or interpret events.
- Generally, Historical research involves the review of written materials but may include oral documentation as well.
- Historical research typically relies on available data.
- The historical method of research also covers categories such as Historical, legal, documentary, institutional, or organizational.
- Important existing data sources for nurse researchers are hospital records, nursing charts, physician order sheets, and care plan statements.
Steps of Historical Research
- First step: Data Collection
- Second step: Criticism of the data.
- Third Step: Presentation of the facts
- First Step:
- Comprehensive gathering of data is undertaken. Historical sources of data are usually classified into two main categories: –
- Primary Sources – Primary sources are First-hand information that includes –
- Oral or written records.
- Remains or realic associated with person, events, groups.
- Documents classified as laws, office records certificates, newspapers, magazines, maps, diagrams, etc.
- Secondary source:
- These are the reports of people who related the actual witness or actual participants in the same
- For example- Most of the history books.
- Second Step: Criticism of the data.
- The second step necessitates a comprehensive review of gathered materials. Two types of criticism
- External criticism – The establishment of the validity of the source.
- Internal criticism – the determination of reliability by correctly interpreting the contents of the document
- Second Step: Criticism of the data.
- Third Step:
- Presentation of the facts
- After evaluating the Historical data, the researcher must bring the material together to analyze it and the research hypotheses
Areas of Historical Study
- Periods- Historical studies often focus on events and developments that occurred during particular blocks of time in the past.
- Geographical locations- particular Geographical locations e.g. countries, cities
- Military history- is concentrates on the study of conflicts that have happened in human society.
- Methods and tools used in Historical research
- Contemporaneous corroboration
- Photography
- Historical revisionism
- Change log
- Human evolution
- Social change
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