absorption of carbohydrates.
Answer.

Absorption Of Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrate digestion is complete when the food materials reach the small intestine and all complex carbohydrates like starch and glycogen and disaccharides are ultimately converted to monosaccharides
• All monosaccharides are completely absorbed from the small intestine
• No carbohydrates higher than monosaccharides can be absorbed directly into the blood and if administered intravenously are eliminated as foreign bodies

Mechanisms Of Absorption

There are 4 mechanisms for carbohydrate absorption:

• Simple diffusion
• Facilitated transport
• Active transport
• Glut2 transport

Question 6. storage of carbohydrates.
Answer.

• Carbohydrates are stored in animals body in the form of glycogen.
• Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of energy storage in animals.
• It is also known as animal starch
• Glycogen primarily stored in the cells of the liver and muscles.
• During starvation, glycogen act as primary source of energy by providing ATPs.

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Question 1. Kwashiorkor.
Answer.

Kwashiorkor is due to inadequate protein in the diet despite an adequate calories intake

Children are more affected by kwashiorkor than adult . it typically than adults. It typically starts after the child has breast milk has been replaced by diet with low in protein, although it can occur in infants if the mother is protein deprive .

Kwashiorkor is a form of severe protein malnutrition characterized by edema and an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates.

It cause by sufficient calories intake but with insufficient protein consumption, which distinguishes it from marasmus.

Kwashiorkor is occurred in area of famine or poor food supply.

Protein in Children: Importance, Sources, and Daily Intake

Read And Learn More: BSc Nursing 1st Year Nutrition And Biochemistry Previous year Question and Answers

Kwashiorkor is a severe form of malnutrition associated with a deficiency in dietary protein , the extreme lack of protein causes osmotic imbalance in gastro-intesteinal system causing swelling of the gut diagnosis as an edema or retention of water.

Sign and symptoms:

The defining sign of kwashiorkor in a malnourished child is pitting edema. (Swelling of ankles and feet) .

Other signs includes a distended abdomen, an enlarged liver wuth fatty infiltrate, thinning of liver, loss of teeth, skin depigmentation and dermatitis.

Generally the disease can be treated by adding protein to the diet, however, it can have a long term impact on a child physical and mental development, and in severe cases may leads death.

Protein Requirements for Children: Growth and Development

Question 2 .Importance of protein in children.
Answer.

Children need adequate amount of protein for good health.

Proteins are essential for the development of both the brain and the body, and maintenance of structure such as bone, muscle and skin.

As a child hood is a phase of growth and development. The protein requirement of children are significantly higher than that of adults. So it is ensure that their children grt enough protein every day .

Protei is an importent component of every cell in the body . Children body need more proteins because they are at growing stage, Proteins also make enzymes, hormones, and other body chemicals. Protein is an important building block of bones, muscles, cartilages, skin and blood.

Protein is quickly digested providing a rapid rise in amino acids that may helps increases muscle mass and strength. It may also reduce appetite and promote fat loss.

If protein deficiency occurs in children during growth period produces kwashiorkor and marasmus.

Protein calorie malnutrition is one of the largest nutritional problem of India.

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Protein-energy malnutrition.
Answer.

Protein Energy Malnutrition

Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) is defined as a range of pathological conditions arising from coincident lack of varying proportions of protein and calorie, occurring most frequently in infants and young children and often associated with infection (WHO,1973) PEM affects children under 5 years of age belonging to the poor underprivileged communities.

Protein Energy Malnutrition Treatment and Nutritional Support

Under nutrition is a complex condition with multiple deficiencies such as proteins,energy and micro nutrient deficiencies often occurring together. According to WHO, malnutrition is an underlying factor in over 50 % of the 10 – 11 million yearly deaths of children under 5 years.

Classification of PEM

Protein energy malnutrition may be classified into three types as follows:

Kwashiorkor

Kwashiorkor is due to inadequate protein in the diet despite an adequate calories intake

Children are more affected by kwashiorkor than adult . it typically than adults. It typically starts after the child has breast milk has been replaced by diet with low in protein, although it can occur in infants if the mother is protein deprive.

Symptoms of Protein Energy Malnutrition and Diagnosis

Kwashiorkor is a form of severe protein malnutrition characterized by edema and an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates.

It cause by sufficient calories intake but with insufficient protein consumpxion, which distinguishes it from marasmus.

Clinical Signs And Sympxoms

Growth failure

• Oedema of the face and lower limbs
• Muscle wasting
• Fatty liver
• Anorexia(loss of appetite)
• Diarrhoea
• Change in the colour, sparse, soft and thin hair.
• Change in the colour of the skin(hypo and hyperpigmentation)
• Anaemia
• Vitamin A deficiency
• Angular stomatitis(Cracks in the corners of mouth)
• Cheilosis (inflammation and cracks in lips)
• Moon face

Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM): Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

Marasmus

This is caused by severe deficiency of proteins and calories in the diet. The important features are as follows:

Severe wasting of muscles

• Loss of subcutaneous fat (Limbs appear as skin and bones)
• Skin is dry and atrophic
• Anaemia
• Eye lesions due to Vitamin A deficiency
• Irritability and fretfulness
• Diarrhoea
• Dehydration
• Body temperature is sub-normal
• Failure to thrive
• Wrinkled skin – Old man’s face
• Grossly underweight

PEM: Types, Causes, and Risk Factors

Understanding Protein Energy Malnutrition: Prevention and Care

Marasmic Kwashiorkor

Children suffering from this disease show signs of both kwashiorkor and marasmus.

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Question 1. Explain Cori’s cycle.
Answer.

Cori’s Cycle

Understanding Cori’s Cycle: Lactic Acid and Glucose Metabolism

• Muscles cannot convert glucose 6 phosphate to glucose due to absence of the enzyme glucose 6 phosphatase
• Lactate formed in the muscles enters the blood and is carried to the liver where it is converted to glucose by gluconeogenesis
• The glucose thus formed then enters the muscles
• This cycle is called Cori’s cycle

Read And Learn More: BSc Nursing 1st Year Nutrition And Biochemistry Previous year Question and Answers

Question 2. Describe the steps of TCA cycle. Add a note on its energetics.
Answer.

Characteristic Features Of KREBS Cycle

• Krebs cycle is also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle)
• It is the final common pathway for the breakdown of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
• It takes place in the mitochondrial matrix
• It takes place only in the presence of oxygen (aerobic conditions)
• Absence of oxygen (anoxia) or partial deficiency of oxygen (hypoxia) causes total or partial inhibition of the cycle
• NADH and FADH2 formed in the Krebs cycle enter the electron transport chain and generate ATP’s
• Intermediates of Krebs cycle play a role in the synthesis of many important compounds such as non-essential amino acids, fatty acids, haeme, cholesterol and steroids.

Cori’s Cycle: Function, Process, and Role in Metabolism

Reactions Of KREBS Cycle

• Krebs cycle takes place in the mitochondria
• Oxaloacetate combines with acetyl COA to form citrate in the first step of Krebs cycle
• Citrate then undergoes a series of reactions to regenerate oxaloacetet

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Factors affecting food and nutrition.
Answer.

Food:

Food is vital for human existence just as air and water.

Food may be defined as anything eaten or drunk, which meets the needs of tissue building, regulation and protection of the body and its energy needs.

Factors That Influence Our Food Choices

Nutrition:

Nutrition is defined as the science of food and its relationship to health.

Nutrition is food at work in the body.

There are many factors which affect food and nutrition are as follow:

• Biological Factors
• Superstitions
• Social and cultural factors
• Religions factors
• Income
• Geography/availability
• Advertising and media
• Psychological factors

Psychological and Environmental Factors Affecting Food Choices

Biological Factors :

In the biological aspect, two main aspects mainly influence food and nutrition

Hunger: Our physiological needs provide the basic determinants of food choice. Humans need energy and nutrients in order to survive.

Sensory aspects: Taste is consistently reported as a major influence on food behaviour.

Superstitions And Cultural Factors :

• Food habits are handed over from generation to generation in society, particularly in developing countries.
• Though these factors have very little or no scientific basis, people rigidly adhere to them. In many parts of India, pregnant women are not allowed Food, to consume papaya as it is believed that papaya produces a lot of heat in the body, which in turn induces abortion. Pineapple is also not given for the same reason.
• Consumption of a lot of garlic is for the secretion of milk.
• In parts of Bengal, people believe that the consumption of the tongue of a goat by children will make them more talkative.

Factors Influencing Food Choices: Personal Preferences and Habits

Religious:

• Hindus do not eat beef, since the cow is an animal sacred to them.
• Among Hindus, some communities do not eat fruits, onions, and garlic.
• Many Hindus are vegetarians.
• Jains do not eat curds and do not eat after sunset.
• It is a custom in most communities in India that women and girls eat only after men and boys finish eating. Thus, the health of the female is affected as they eats poorly with the leftover food.

Economic Factors Influencing Food Choices

Income:

• Financial resources determine the type of food we consume.
• Depending on the availability, one selects the food.
• People in lower-income groups in India consume a combination of cereals and cheaply available green leafy vegetables, roots, and tubers.
• People Food of higher-income groups can choose food from all groups irrespective of season.

Geography/Availability:

• In the olden days, man would eat what ever was available to satisfy his hunger. The food he got was the type he could cultivate in his locality.
• Rice is the main food crop grown in tropical areas.
• The nutrition value of natural foods does not vary from country to country. But there is a great variation in the composition of prepared foods such as bread, biscuits, cakes, etc., due to variation in recipes and basic ingredients used in different regions.

Understanding Food Choices: Nutrition, Convenience, and Taste

Psychological Factors:

Level of stress, emotions- appetite increases during happiness but diminishes with stress

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Classification of foods.
Answer.

• Food is vital for human existence just as air and water.
• Food may be defined as anything eaten or drunk, which meets the needs of tissue building, regulation and protection of the body and its energy needs.
• Food is the raw material from which our bodies are made.

Food Classification by Nutrients: Proteins, Carbs, Fats, and More

Read And Learn More: BSc Nursing 1st Year Nutrition And Biochemistry Previous year Question and Answers

Classification Of Food

• Based on its origin
  • Foods of animal origin
  • Foods of vegetable origin

Based on Chemical Composition

• Proteins
• Fats
• Carbohydrates
• Minerals
• Vitamins

Based On Its Function

• Body building foods – amino acids, proteins
• Energy giving foods – carbohydrates (wheat, rice)
• Protective foods – vitamins and minerals (vegetables)

Food Classification by Nutrients: Proteins, Carbs, Fats, and More

Based On Nutrition Value

Five Food Group System

• Cereals and millets
• Pulses and legumes
• Milk, milk products and meat
• Fruits and vegetables
• Fats and sugars

The Role of Food in Body Function and Health

Based on their functions, foods are grouped into energy-yielding foods, body-building foods and protective foods.

• Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins release energy through metabolism in our bodies.
• Cereals like rice, wheat, ragi, and maize, roots and tubers like potato, sweet potato, and tapioca are good sources of carbohydrate. Fats are a more concentrated source of energy.
• Proteins are considered body-building food even though they can supply energy as well. Protein, calcium, phosphorus, iron, and water are body-building nutrients.
• Protein foods like milk, meat, fish, eggs, pulses, grams, and nuts are essential to build our tissues and to form blood. Our body functions are regulated by water, minerals, and vitamins. They are called the protective foods. Water is necessary for various body processes.
• Vitamins are essential for regulating the body processes such as growth, muscular coordination of various organs, and functions of several organs like the eyes, ears, nose, and skin.
• Minerals like Ca help in controlling blood clotting, muscular contraction, and for efficiency of heart muscles. Iron is essential for blood formation. Iodine is necessary for regulating body functions through the thyroid gland.

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Function of food.
Answer.

Food is vital for human existence, just as air and water.

Food may be defined as anything eaten or drunk that meets the needs of tissue building, regulation, and protection of the body and its energy needs.

How Food Provides Energy and Nutrients for the Body

Food is the raw material from which our bodies are made.

Functions of Food

Function of Food: Energy, Growth, and Repair

Functions of Food in the Human Body

Function of Food: Energy, Growth, and Repair

• Provide energy: Fats are a more concentrated source of energy
• Body building: Proteins are considered body-building food even though they can supply energy as well. Protein, calcium, phosphorus, iron , and water are body-building nutrients.

Food and Its Role in Growth and Development

• Regulating the activities of the body including
  • Beating of the heart
  • Maintenance of body temperature
  • Muscle contraction
  • Clotting of blood
  • Control of water balance
  • Elimination of the waste products of the body

Nutritional Functions of Food in Human Health

• Provide resistance to diseases
• Social function: Feasts are served on specific stages of life— birth, naming ceremonies, birth days, marriages etc. Prasad is distributed in temples. Pedhas are distributed to announce success in exams or birth of a baby. Laddus are associated with Deepawali and marriages, cakes with Christmas and Weddings. Refreshments served at get together and meetings create a relaxed atmostphere.
• Psychological functions of food. Breastfeeding provides closeness and security to the child. Food also satisfy some emotional needs like security, attention and friendship and acceptance. Food can be used as a weapon to fight against diseases. An insecure child sometimes refuses food, so that mother will be concerned about the child and bow to its demand.

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Role of Food and its Medicinal Value.
Answer.

Role Of Food And Its Medicinal Value

Most deficiency diseases have been eliminated in the West by the abundance of food supplies. Yet diseases related to malnutrition in the form of dietary excess and imbalance are quite common in the Western countries. Four of the ten leading causes of death— heart diseases, cancer, stroke and diabetes have been linked to diet.

Functions of Food in Human Health

Poor dietary habits and a sedentary lifestyle together account for three lakh deaths in the US every year. Determinant factors account for a third or more of all cases of both cancer and heart diseases.

A high fat diet raises the risk of some types of cancer, heart diseases, and obesity, which in turn contribute to several other problems, including diabetes and high blood pressure. Studiescarried out have shown that the quality of diets consumed by people in the UK and USA during the period 1911–1960 have been steadily increasing, and consequently the growth rate of children also was increasing during the same period. After 1960, the growth rate of children did not show any significant improvement, showing that the diet had been adequate for providing maximum growth in children.

Importance of Food for Energy and Vital Functions

On the other hand, the rate of growth of children in developing countries continues to be poor. The children are malnourished, emaciated, and stunted.

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Question 1. Functions of carbohydrates.
Answer.

Functions Of Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are the most abundant dietary source of energy (4 c/gm)
• Carbohydrates are the precursors for many organic compounds, such as fats and amino acids
• Carbohydrates participate in the structure of the cell membrane
• Carbohydrates play a role in cellular functions such as cell growth, adhesion, and fertilization
• Carbohydrates serve as the storage form of energy (glycogen) to meet the immediate energy demands of the body

Fat-Soluble Vitamins and the Role of Fats in Absorption

The Functions of Fats in the Body: Energy Storage and More

Carbohydrates: Energy, Health, and Nutritional Functions

• Carbohydrate derivatives are used as drugs, e.g., cardiac glycosides and antibiotics
• Lactose is the principal sugar of milk in the lactating mammary gland
• Carbohydrates are constituents of compound lipids and conjugated proteins
• Heparin is an anticoagulant
• Hetero-polysaccharides form the ground substance of tissues.

Functions of Carbohydrates in the Human Body

Question 2. Sources of carbohydrates.
Answer.

Sources of Carbohydrates

The following are the main sources of carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates and Their Role in Metabolism

Fats and Their Role in Hormone Production and Cell Function

• Starches: These are present in cereals, roots, and tubers, e.g., Rice, wheat, ragi, pulses, potatoes, tapioca, yam, and cassava.
• Sugars
  • Monosaccharides (simple sugars): glucose, fructose, and galactose
  • Disaccharides (Double sugars): sucrose, lactose, maltose.
  • Polysaccharides (Complex carbohydrates), e.g., cellulose.

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Question 1. Functions of lipids/fats.
Answer.

Functions Of Lipids/Fat.

• Lipids are constituents of the membrane structure
• Lipids regulate membrane permeability
• Lipids are a source of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K)
• Lipids take part in the regulation of cell metabolism
• Lipids are an important source of energy (9.5 C/gm)

Importance of Fats in Energy and Nutrient Absorption

• Lipids can be stored in the body in unlimited amounts
• Lipids exert an insulating effect in the body
• Lipids around internal organs, like kidney, may provide padding and protect the organ
• Lipids are essential forthe  proper functioning of the nervous system
• Essential fatty acids (PUFAs) are required to be taken in the diet for normal health and growth.

The Functions of Fats in the Body: Energy Storage and Protection

Question 2. Digestion of lipids/fats.
Answer.

Digestion In The Mouth

• The enzyme lingual lipase is secreted from the dorsal surface of the tongue (Ebner’s gland).
• It acts at a pH of 4 to 4.5.
• It breaks down TG to fatty acid and glycerol

Functions of Fats: Insulation, Hormone Production, and Protection

Digestion In The Stomach

• The enzyme gastric lipase acts at a pH of 7 to 8.
• It requires calcium ion for its activity.
• Activity of gastric lipase is seen when the intestinal contents are regurgitated into the stomach.
• Fats delay the rate of emptying of the stomach and thus have high satiety value.

The Functions of Fats in the Body: Energy Storage and Protection

Digestion In The Small Instestine

• Pancreatic juice enters the small intestine through the pancreatic duct and bile enters the small intestine through the bile duct.
• Secretion of pancreatic juice is stimulated by the hormones secretin and Cholecystokinin–Pancreozymin (CCK-PZ)
• Bile salts help in emulsification of fats (breakdown of fats into smaller units).
• Pancreatic lipase acts at a pH of 6 and breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol.
• The enzyme cholesterol esterase breaks down cholesterol esters, and phospholipase breaks down phospholipids.

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